English Literature Essays

This section of the site began in a small way in July 2000 with a few essays by myself and friends and now, thanks to contributors from all over the world, it has grown into a substantial collection of literary criticism. The essays are arranged in chronological order of their subjects. There is also a quick alphabetical index on the left of the page. All essays are copyright of their authors. Contributions are welcome. If you have written an essay which you would like to be considered for inclusion on this site, or would like to offer feedback on the site, please contact me. General literary topics Glossary of Literary Terms Definitions of terms frequently encountered in the study of English literature (6,100 words) Studying English Literature Introductory thoughts from the webmaster (1,000 words) Reader-Response Theories The Author, the Text, and the Reader. Where is the meaning of a work of literature located? In the mind of the author, the mind of the reader, or in the text itself? Clarissa Lee Ai Ling studies some reader-response theories, and discusses some views on how the objectivity of the literary text is or is not distinguished from the subjectivity of the reader's response. (3,800 words) What is Literary Writing? John Oldcastle considers the qualities which distinguish literary writing from other kinds of writing, exploring the techniques used by literary writers, and their motives for writing, and offering many fine examples of literary writing to illustrate his thesis. (2,300 words) Main Index. Chronological by period and author's dates Ancient literature Indian Women's Writing A World of Words, Lost and Found: a brief overview of women's literature in India from the 6th century BC onwards. Sherin Koshy explores the history of women's writing in India, revealing the long tradition which preceded the rise of modern Indian woman writers in English, such as Arundhati Roy and Anita Desai. (2,400 words) Classical literature Aristotle: Poetics Complexity and pleasure: Aristotle's 'complex plot' and the pleasure element in tragedy. Souvik Mukherjee examines Aristotle's Poetics and other works in order to elucidate Aristotle's view of a successful tragedy (2,100 words) Ovid in John Dryden's Translation Augustan vs Augustan - Translating the Art of Storytelling. Thomas Bailey studies John Dryden's translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, Book 11, the story of Ceyx and Alcyone, analysing Dryden's approach to the task and assessing his success in capturing the 'three-dimensional' quality of the original. (6,000 words) Top Anglo-Saxon literature Beowulf Beowulf: An Epic Hero. An analysis of the character of Beowulf from the Anglo-Saxon poem, showing the characteristics which make him an epic hero. By Jeni Zirk (700 words) Medieval literature Geoffrey Chaucer (c1343-1400) The Canterbury Tales The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale. A study of Chaucer's The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale, focusing on The Wife's personality, beliefs, and attitudes, and showing the connections between the prologue and the tale. By Ian Mackean. (3,300 words) Geoffrey Chaucer: The Canterbury Tales. John Bunyan (1628-1688) The Pilgrim's Progress The Author and his Reader: Christian Literature as Conversation. Heather-Ann Wickers compares and contrasts Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress as examples of Christian Literature. (2,800 words) Renaissance literature Machiavelli: The Prince The Devil's Morals. Souvik Mukherjee studies the ethics in Machiavelli's The Prince (1,500 words) Castiglione: The Courtier Bembo's Discourse on Love. Souvik Mukherjee studies Bembo's Discourse on Love in Book IV of The Courtier to consider whether it makes a fitting end to Castiglione's famous Renaissance book. (1,200 words) Top Edmund Spenser: The Faerie Queene The Bower of Bliss and The Garden of Adonis. Ian Mackean contrasts two sections of The Faerie Queene to show how Spenser used them to develop themes such as art versus nature, appearances versus reality, and lust versus love. (2,000 words) Sir Philip Sidney: Astrophil and Stella Structure, Theme and Convention in Sir Philip Sidney's Sonnet Sequence, Astrophil and Stella. By Donna. (2,000 words) Renaissance Tragedy and Investigator Heroes The role of the investigator in Renaissance tragedy, with special reference to Shakespeare's Hamlet and Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy.Tannistho Ghosh makes convincing connections between two Renaissance tragic heroes and the investigators of modern crime fiction. (2,500 words) Shakespeare: Twelfth Night Form, Structure and Language. Jenia Geraghty studies William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, showing how Shakespeare's choice of form, structure and language help to shape the play's meaning. (1,700 words) Shakespeare: Hamlet Corruption - an Incurable Disease. Rob Moriarity uncovers the theme of corruption and 'disease' in Shakespeare's Hamlet. 1,000 words) Shakespeare: Shakespeare's Women Shakespeare's treatment of women in the tragedies Hamlet, Othello and Antony and Cleopatra. Was Shakespeare a feminist? Liz Lewis explores three of Shakespeare's tragedies from a feminist perspective, arguing that Ophelia, Desdemona, and in Antony and Cleopatra - Antony, were victims of patriarchal society, while in his treatment of these characters Shakespeare himself transcended the stereotypes of his time. (3,600 words) Shakespeare: Measure for Measure The Error of Desperate Measures. Ian Mugford studies Shakespeare’s play Measure for Measure to explore what it can show us about how justice can be eroded, and how justice ought to be maintained. (2,600 words) Top Shakespeare: Measure for Measure Game-playing in Shakespeare's Measure for Measure. Tannistho Ghosh looks at Shakespeare's Measure for Measure and puts forward the view that the plot can usefully be seen in terms of game-playing. (2,100 words) Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra The Tragic in Antony and Cleopatra. Drawing on views of tragedy put forward by Aristotle, and by French dramatists such as Corneille and Racine, Isabelle Vignier explains why Antony and Cleopatra is a tragedy as well as being one of Shakespeare's Roman plays. (3,700 words) Shakespeare: Coriolanus Who is to Blame for Coriolanus's Banishment? Ian Mackean examines the central theme of Shakespeare's tragedy Coriolanus. (2,000 words) Top Shakespeare: The Winter's Tale and The Tempest The Mixture of Styles in Shakespeare's Last Plays. The mixture of styles evident in Shakespeare's last plays has often made them elusive to audiences, readers and theatre practitioners. Liz Lewis argues that Shakespeare used the mixture of styles successfully to contribute to the plays' themes of renewal and regeneration. (2,200 words) Shakespeare: Masquerade The Role of Masquerade in Shakespeare. Ian Mugford studies the use Shakespeare makes of traditions of masquerade in plays such as Twelfth Night, King Lear, and The Taming of the Shrew, covering themes such as gender, disguise, festivities, and Elizabethan Sumptuary Laws. (3,700 words) John Donne (1572-1631) Love Poetry The Love Poetry of John Donne. Ian Mackean explores the wide variety of attitudes towards love depicted by the Metaphysical poet John Donne in his Songs and Sonnets. (2,000 words) John Donne: Valedictions A Valediction: of Weeping and A Valediction: forbidding mourning. A study of John Donne's two poems of valediction, showing how they are both typically Metaphysical, but very different in tone. By Ian Mackean (1,650 words) Top John Donne: Religious Poems Holy Sonnet (Batter my Heart) and A Hymn to God the Father. A close look at two of John Donne's religious poems, showing Metaphysical characteristics in each, but very different purposes and moods. By Ian Mackean (900 words) John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan Religious Metaphysical poetry. Ian Mackean studies the way George Herbert (1593-1633) and Henry Vaughan (1622-95) developed the style of religious Metaphysical poetry established by John Donne (1572-1631).(3,000 words) Ben Jonson (1572–1637) Ben Jonson Unmasked: A study of how Ben Jonson's plays reveal his changing attitudes to his fellow playwrights, the theatre as a medium, and his own role as a dramatist. Kathleen A. Prendergast delves into Jonson's plays and uncovers a rich subtext in which Jonson was exploring his own role as a dramatist, showing that in the course of his career his attitudes changed in response to changing circumstances and his own developing maturity. The essay focuses on Poetaster, Volpone, and Bartholomew Fair. (7,000 words) Renaissance Poetry Renaissance 'country house' poetry as social criticism. Emma Jones studies Renaissance 'country house' poetry, with close reference to Ben Jonson's To Penshurst, and Aemilia Lanyer's The Description of Cooke-ham. (2,600 words) Top John Webster (1580–1634). The Duchess of Malfi The principal characters and their roles in The Duchess of Malfi: Jenia Geraghty studies John Webster's revenge tragedy, The Duchess of Malfi, and examines the role and significance of the principal characters in the play. (2,600 words) Eighteenth century literature The Age of Reason The fall and rise of Rome and the spread of English. Stephen Colbourn surveys the changing intellectual and political climate of 'The Age of Reason', showing how it brought about a change in the status of the English language and English Literature, and how trends that took hold at that time have led to English becoming the nearest language to a Universal Tongue. (3,500 words) Top John Dryden (1631-1700): Translation of Ovid Augustan vs Augustan - Translating the Art of Storytelling. Thomas Bailey studies John Dryden's translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, Book 11, the story of Ceyx and Alcyone, analysing Dryden's approach to the task and assessing his success in capturing the 'three-dimensional' quality of the original. (6,000 words) Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) and John Gay (1685-1732) Satire in the work of Swift and Gay. Catherine Cooper studies the work of two 18th Century satirists, looking at Swift's Gulliver's Travels, and other works, and John Gay's The Shepherd's Week, and Fables. (3,500 words) Alexander Pope (1688-1744) The Rape of the Lock Pope's portrayal of Belinda and her society in The Rape of the Lock. Ian Mackean studies Pope's mock-epic poem.(2,000 words) Top Henry Fielding (1701-1754) Morality in Fielding's Novels. Catherine Cooper looks at four of Fielding's novels: Joseph Andrews, Tom Jones, Amelia, and Shamela to consider whether the author presents a consistent moral attitude towards themes such as marriage, chastity, and infidelity. (2,400 words) Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774) She Stoops to Conquer: social and psychological contrasts. Catherine Cooper shows how the themes of She Stoops to Conquer are developed through contrasts, such as between age and youth, city and country, and high and low social class, and finds that behind those superficial contrasts deeper psychological contrasts are being explored. (2,000 words) Romantic literature Romanticism Memory In Romanticism: mnemosyne, plasticity, and emotion recollected In tranquillity. Aritro Ganguly and Rangeet Sengupta discuss the importance of memory to the Romantics, showing how the issues with which poets such as Wordsworth and Coleridge were concerned resonate with issues relevant to the Classical era, the shift from an oral to written culture which took place with the invention of the printing press, Enlightenment philosophy, contemporary debates about artificial intelligence, and the advent of audio-visual mass communications. (3,500 words) Top William Wordsworth (1770-1850) William Wordsworth and Lucy. Trivikrama Kumari Jamwal studies the 'Lucy' poems by William Wordsworth and attempts to analyze Wordsworth as a poet in the light of his perspective outlined in his Preface to Lyrical Ballads (1800). The essay also tries to understand the nature or 'character' of Lucy and Lucy as an instrument of Wordsworth's ideas on the art and craft of composing poetry. (2100 words) William Wordsworth Lyrical Ballads. Wordsworth's Solitary Figures. Catherine Cooper looks at the solitary figures in Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads, and considers why Wordsworth was so interested in such characters, and what lessons about humanity he wanted us to learn from them. (2,300 words) William Wordsworth The Prelude. A study of Book 6, entitled 'Cambridge and the Alps', of William Wordsworth's autobiographical epic poem The Prelude, Growth of a Poet's Mind. By Ian Mackean. (1,850 words) Top Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) Coleridge and Becoming. Charles Ngiewih TEKE (Ph.D) discusses the question of the transforming creative self and the aesthetics of becoming in Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' and 'Dejection: An Ode'. (8,200 words) John Keats (1795–1821) John Keats and Nature, an Ecocritical Inquiry. Charles Ngiewih TEKE (Ph.D) studies the poetry and letters of John Keats examining his attitudes to Nature, showing how he regarded nature as central to the creative process and as physically and psychologically therapeutic to man. (5,300 words) John Keats and Eroticism From Eroticism To Psycho-Aesthetics And Spirituality: The Keatsian Dimension. Charles Ngiewih TEKE (Ph.D) analyses John Keats' attitude to the feminine, eroticism, and spirituality, with particular reference to 'The Eve of St. Agnes' and Endymion. (6,800 words) Women Poets and the Romantic Sublime Kerry White examines the proposition that a writer's gender limits his or her use of the concept of the sublime in Romantic poetry, showing that aspects of the sublime can be found in the works of female as well as male writers. (2,900 words) Jane Austen (1775-1817) Persuasion The Authorial Voice and the Heroine's Point of View. A look at Jane Austen's novel Persuasion. Some general aspects of Austen's style, subject matter and limitations are covered. In relation to Persuasion, the role of the heroine Anne Eliot is considered, particularly the question of whether Jane Austen succeeded completely in keeping her authorial voice separate from the point of view of her central character. By Ian Mackean (2,400 words) Top Victorian literature Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) The Scarlet Letter A comparison between Hester Prynne, of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, and Margaret Fuller, the mid-nineteenth-century campaigner for the rights of women. Emma Jones considers the proposition: 'Endowed in certain respects with the sensibility of Margaret Fuller, the great campaigner for the rights of women, Hester Prynne is as much a woman of mid-nineteenth-century American culture as she is of seventeenth-century Puritan New England'. (2,900 words) Charles Dickens (1812-1870) Dickens's Narrative Technique. Ian Mackean looks at excerpts from Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, and David Copperfield and considers the ways in which Dickens's narrative technique can be said to be 'dramatic'. (3,100 words) Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855) Jane Eyre. Jean Rhys (1890-1979) Wide Sargasso Sea Doubles. The representation of the doubleness of selfhood in Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre and Jean Rhys's Wide Sargasso Sea. By Liz Lewis. (3,000 words) Top Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre. Jean Rhys: Wide Sargasso Sea Symbolism. The use of symbolism in the presentation of characters and plots in Jane Eyre and Wide Sargasso Sea. By Jenia Geraghty.(2,200 words) Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) The Literary Criticism of Matthew Arnold. S. N. Radhika Lakshmi looks at the literary criticism of Matthew Arnold, the Victorian poet and critic, considering his influence on 20th century critics such as Eliot and Leavis, his limitations, and his legacy. (4,700 words) Bengali Folktales in English Translation Spurious Additions: Lal Behari Day and the Discovery of the Genuine Folk. A study of early English translations of Bengali folktales discussing the colonial discourses of control and gaze that were involved in such compilations and translations. By Rangeet Sengupta (11,000 words) Top Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) Introduction The Thomas Hardy Page. Introduction, links, and books Thomas Hardy: Tess of the d'Urbervilles Human Morality and the Laws of Nature. Ian Mackean looks at Thomas Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles to show how Hardy pits variable, changeable, human morality against the eternal laws of Nature. (2,200 words) Henry James (1843-1916) The Turn of the Screw Ghost story, or Study in Libidinal Repression? Sumia S. Abdul Hafidh gives an account of Henry James's novella The Turn of the Screw, showing that its psychological depth makes it far more than just a 'ghost story'. (1,750 words) Kate Chopin (1851-1904) The Awakening Edna Pontellier and nineteenth-century female characters. Is Edna Pontellier a prototypical feminist? Emma Jones explores the extent to which Edna Pontellier, in Kate Chopin's The Awakening, marks a departure from the female characters of earlier nineteenth-century American novels. (2,400 words) Top Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness Gareth Rowlands introduces Conrad's famous novella Heart of Darkness, outlining its plot, main themes, and symbolism. (1,400 words) Joseph Conrad: The Secret Agent Married to the Devil: The Secret Agent's critique of late-Victorian gender roles. Brandon Colas analyses Conrad's novel, arguing that at its heart is a critique of Victorian England's attitude towards women. (5,100 words) Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) Kim Ian Mackean looks at a novel which the critic Edward W Said called 'a rich and absolutley fascinating, but neverthrless profoundly embarrassing novel'. (5,500 words) Top Henry Lawson (1867-1922) Eureka! Kerry White studies Australian poet Henry Lawson's 1889 poem 'Eureka!', suggesting that Lawson may have been trying to light the fire of Australian nationalism. (1,400 words) The Georgian Poets and The War Poets The Georgians and The War Poets Stephen Colbourn gives an account of the way the dreamy romantic poetry of The Georgian Poets of the early twentieth century evolved into harsh modern realism under the impact of the First World War. (4,600 words) Modern, postmodern, and postcolonial literature Indian Women Writers Modern Indian Women Writers in English. An introduction documenting the increasing prominence of Indian women writers in the postcolonial era. By Antonia Navarro-Tejero (2,600 words) Top W B Yeats (1865-1939) An Introduction to W B Yeats. A study of the life and work of the Irish poet W B Yeats, covering his interest in the occult, his role in the Irish Cultural Revival and Irish National Theatre, his love for Maude Gonne, and his becoming one of the first Modernist poets. By Ian Mackean (2,250 words) W B Yeats: Last Poems Tragic Joy. A survey of W B Yeats's volume Last Poems (1936-1939), looking in particular at his approach of 'tragic joy' and his attitudes towards art. By Ian Mackean (1,700 words) The Celtic Revival The Late Nineteenth Century Debate Concerning the Revival of Celtic Culture. Marie C. E. Burns examines the rise of the Celtic Literary Revival of the nineteenth century, and considers the attitudes of writers including Edmund Spenser, Matthew Arnold, and W B Yeats, towards Celtic culture and literature. (3,000 words) Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) The development of psychoanalysis and orientation of the self in the context of twentieth century western societies. Mark Norton looks at the social conditions which gave rise to the psychoanalytic movement, and introduces us to the work of Carl Gustav Jung. His essay covers many topics, such as the growth of cities, the growth of mass movements, the rise of consumerism, and the decline of religion, as well as the growth of the psychoanalytic movement itself, which provide relevant background material for the study of twentieth century western literature. (3,700 words) Top James Joyce (1882-1941) Introduction The James Joyce Page. Introduction to James Joyce, links to other essays, web resources and bookshop James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Rebellion and Release. Ian Mackean analyses some significant themes in Joyce's novel with particular focus on Chapters 1, 3, and 5. (7,400 words) James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Stephen Dedalus - Rebel Without a Cause? Ben Foley studies James Joyce's A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man, showing how Stephen Dedalus is portrayed as an outsider, and how his alienation from the traditional voices of authority in his life contributes to his budding artistic talent. (1,500 words) James Joyce: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Flying By the Nets: Stephen Dedalus's search for personal definition in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Will McManus studies James Joyce's novel. (3,100 words) Top Virginia Woolf (1882-1941) Mrs Dalloway Viewing Mrs. Dalloway Through the Lens of 'Modern Fiction'. Ian Mugford examines Virginia Woolf's novel Mrs Dalloway in the light of the views on literature which she put forward in her essay 'Modern Fiction'. (1,600 words) Virginia Woolf: To the Lighthouse An Introduction. Jennifer Kerr guides us through Virginia Woolf's novel To the Lighthouse (1927), introducing us to the structure, plot, main characters and themes, and the autobiographical background. (3,000 words) Virginia Woolf: The Waves The Role of Percival. Karin Riley introduces us to Virginia Woolf's 1931 novel The Waves by examining the central role of the character Percival and his influence on the lives of the other characters. (1,250 words) D. H. Lawrence (1885-1930) An Introduction to D H Lawrence. Introduction to Lawrence's life and work, with recommended links, links to other essays, and bookshop. (1,250 words) D. H. Lawrence: Women in Love The Sisters in D. H. Lawrence's Women In Love. Nitya Bakshi illuminates some of the themes of Lawrence's novel by examining the contrasting characters of the sisters, Ursula and Gudrun Brangwen. (1,200 words) D. H. Lawrence, Henrik Ibsen, and John Galsworthy Naturalist Drama and Environmental Influences. Catherine Cooper studies the way plays by three early modern authors, Henrik Ibsen's Hedda Gabler, D. H. Lawrence's The Daughter-in-law and The Widowing of Mrs Holroyd, and John Galsworthy's Strife, show the powerful influence of the environment on the quality of human life. (4,000 words) Top Ezra Pound (1885-1972) Introduction to Ezra Pound. Stephen Colbourn introduces the life and work of the influential American poet. (1,250 words) T S Eliot (1888-1965) An Introduction. Stephen Colbourn introduces the life and work of the most important poet of the Modernist era. (1,600 words) T S Eliot The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. Brandon Colas examines the character of J. Alfred Prufrock, showing how his fear of his real self being known results in his leading a restricted and emotionally impoverished life. (1,800 words) Top T S Eliot, Albert Camus Prufrock and The Outsider. Souvik Mukherjee compares T. S. Eliot's J. Alfred Prufrock and Albert Camus' Meursault, showing that Prufrock himself was an outsider. (1,600 words) T S Eliot: Four Quartets Four Quartets: The sign and the symbol. Nick Ambler studies T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets, (taking into account the reader-response theory of Wolfgang Iser), and the cyclical nature of East Coker. (3,000 words) J R R Tolkien (1892-1973) The Lord of the Rings Heroism and Redemption in Middle-Earth. Rahul Mitra examines Tolkien's fictional realm, Middle-Earth, as portrayed in The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarilion, and The Hobbit. (3,800 words) Victor Maslin Yeates (1897-l934) Winged Victory. Jenna Austin introduces Victor Maslin Yeates' semi-autobiographical account of life as a Sopwith Camel pilot on the Western Front during World War I. (1,300 words) Top William Faulkner (1897-1962) Sartoris In search of a new form. Manana Gelashvili shows how Faulkner's experimentation with the presentation of time began in his novel Sartoris. (2,900 words) Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) Introducing Ernest Hemingway. Professor Ganesan Balakrishnan, Ph.D. gives a biographical introduction to Ernest Hemingway, winner of the 1954 Nobel Prize for literature, then goes on to explore some of the themes of his novels, arguing that some critics have underestimated the depth of meaning in his work. (2,100 words) Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) Sergio Leone’s Once Upon a Time in America – A Lacanian Perspective. Mark Norton introduces Lacan's essay 'The Mirror Stage' and applies its analysis of subjectivity to the cinema. (3,000 words) John Steinbeck (1902-1968) Introduction to Steinbeck. An introduction to the life and work of John Steinbeck, with recommended links and bookshop (1,100 words) Morley Callaghan (1903-1990): Short Stories Placing Reality in Perspective: Guiding Lives. Ian Mugford examines three short stories by the Canadian writer Morley Callaghan: 'All the Years of Her Life', 'Last Spring They Came Over', and 'Rigmarole', and offers some insight into Callaghan's themes and style. (1,400 words) Top Christopher Isherwood (1904-86) All the Conspirators Stylistic Innovation. A study of Christopher Isherwood's first novel All the Conspirators (1928) exploring the stylistic innovations in his Modernist approach to fiction writing. By Ian Mackean (2,000 words) Graham Greene (1904-1991) Brighton Rock The characterisation of good and evil. Sarah Jones studies the main characters and themes in Graham Greene's 1938 novel Brighton Rock. (2,200 words) Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) An Introduction. Stephen Colbourn introduces Samuel Beckett, author of the ground-breaking play Waiting for Godot, leading figure in the Theatre of the Absurd, and winner of the 1969 Nobel Prize for Literature. (900 words) Top Samuel Beckett: Use of Comedy The Function of Comedy in the Plays of Samuel Beckett. A discussion of Samuel Beckett's use of comedy elements such as clown-like characters and cross-talk dialogue in his plays. Plays discussed: Waiting For Godot, Krapp's Last Tape, Endgame. By Ian Mackean (2,700 words) Samuel Beckett: Waiting for Godot Man's Battle with Himself. Margaret Gumley offers a personal interpretation of Waiting for Godot in which she sees the contrasting characters Vladimir and Estragon as representing Man's battle with himself. (900 words)Top R K Narayan (1906-2001) The English Teacher What About Our Own roots? Krishna's Journey in The English Teacher. Ian Mackean offers an interpretation of a novel by one of India's best-known writers. With an additional commentary on the novel and excerpts from comments by Indian literary critics by S. N. Radhika Lakshmi. (4,300 words) R K Narayan. The English Teacher Two Teachers. Deepa Patel studies The English Teacher, focussing on the contrasting characters and philosophies of Krishna and The Headmaster. (2,100 words) R K Narayan: The Guide Sex, symbolism, illusion and reality In R K Narayan's The Guide. Amitangshu Acharya offers a reading of R K Narayan's novel The Guide in which he interprets the story in terms of Hindu philosophy, showing that Raju's journey is a struggle through Maya (illusion) towards Moksha (liberation). (2,700 words) R K Narayan R K Narayan's vision of life. Can R. K. Narayan's view of life be understood in terms of Western concepts such as Existentialism or Nihilism? Amitangshu Acharya studies Narayan's novels and concludes that his view is closer to the Oriental philosophies of Hinduism and Buddhism. (1,300 words) Elizabeth Bishop (1911-1979) The Influence of Elizabeth Bishop on Modern American Poetry Jonathan Ellis assesses the importance of Elizabeth Bishop for the poets and poetry movements of the Modern era. (2,700 words) Top William Golding (1911-1993). Introduction The William Golding Page. Introduction, links to essays on this site and resources on other sites, and books. William Golding: Lord of the Flies The Loss of Identity in Lord of the Flies. Sumia S. Abdul Hafidh looks at William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies, describing the roles of the principal characters and showing how they lose their civilized identities and descend into barbarism. (1,700 words) William Golding: Lord of the Flies Symbolism in Lord of the Flies. Amal Gedleh examines the use of symbolism in William Golding's novel, showing how symbols such as the conch shell, Piggy's glasses, the Beast and the fire contribute to the novel's themes. (1,180 words) William Golding: Lord of the Flies Chaos Versus Civilization Tahmina Mojaddedi studies the theme of chaos versus civilization in Lord of the Flies, highlighting the novel's message that the restraining influence of society is necessary for civilization to continue, and that living by instinct alone will lead to chaos and destruction. (950 words) Tennessee Williams (1911-1983) An Introduction. Hugh Croydon introduces the life and work of Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Tennessee Williams, author of The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Orpheus Descending and other plays, with recommended links and books. (1,400 words) Lawrence Durrell (1912-1990) An Introduction. Stephen Colbourn introduces the author Lawrence Durrell, best known for his sequence of four novels The Alexandria Quartet, and gives some insight into the history of the city of Alexandria, which is a backdrop to the novels. (900 words) New York! New York! The Making of the New York Intellectuals. Sudeep Paul examines the cultural background to the rise to prominence of the Jewish New York writers and intellectuals in the 1940s-1970s. (3,000 words) Top Dylan Thomas (1914-1953) An Introduction. Stephen Colbourn introduces the life and work of the Welsh poet Dylan Thomas. (900 words) Saul Bellow (1915-2005) and Ken Kesey (1935-2001) Modern Literature's Depiction of Nervous Ailments. Catherine Cooper studies Saul Bellow's The Victim and Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest to see what these modern authors show us about our neuroses and psychoses. (3,200 words) Anthony Burgess (1917-1993) An Introduction. Stephen Colbourn introduces the life and work of Anthony Burgess, author of the controversial 1960s novel A Clockwork Orange (1,600 words) Top Sir Kingsley Amis (1922-1995) Sir Kingsley Amis and the Era of Lucky Jim. Stephen Colbourn introduces the author Sir Kingsley Amis, best known for his 1954 novel Lucky Jim, in the context of the social changes taking place in post-war Britain of the 1950s. (1,000 words) Flannery O'Connor (1925-1964) Good Country People Nihilist Hypocrites Brandon Colas studies Flannery O'Connor's short story 'Good Country People' to show how the plot, characters, and symbolism all contribute to a powerful argument against a nihilistic philosophy of life. (1,800 words) William Styron (1925-) Sophie's Choice Human nature and societal pressure. Stephanie Beranek studies William Styron's holocaust novel Sophie's Choice and concludes that it shows a fatal collision between human nature and societal pressure. (1,200 words) Top Jonathan Bayliss (1927-2009) Where West Meets East: The Counterentropic Fiction of Jonathan Bayliss. Stephen Farrell introduces the work of self-published author Jonathan Bayliss, whose fiction he describes as 'a treasure-trove of prose poetry, mathematical puzzles, and mythological and literary references'. (1,600 words) Ted Hughes (1930-1998) Introduction. Introduction to the life and work of former Poet Laureate Ted Hughes, with recommended links and books. By Sarah Jones.(1,400 words) Harold Pinter (1930-2008) Psychological Warfare Winners and Losers in the Plays of Harold Pinter. Ian Mackean looks at psychological warfare between characters in Pinter's plays in the light of a revealing comment made by Pinter himself. (3,800 words) Lorraine Hansberry (1930-1965) A Raisin in the Sun The Ghetto Trap Brandon Colas examines the social history behind Lorraine Hansberry's play A Raisin in the Sun, showing how racial prejudice on the part of the housing industry, the Government, religious leaders, and individuals contributed to the injustices of segregated housing. (2,800 words) Top Toni Morrison (1931-) Beloved and Jazz The 'monstrous potential of love': Moral ambiguity in Toni Morrison's Beloved and Jazz. Liz Lewis studies two challenging novels by the winner of the 1993 Nobel Prize for Literature. (3,000 words) Toni Morrison: Beloved and Slavery The Unspoken Spoken Marie C. E. Burns analyzes Toni Morrison’s Beloved in the context of the African American experience of slavery, and slave narratives. (10,000 words) Sylvia Plath and Alice Walker Two women writers challenge society's conspiracy against women. Catherine Cooper explores the work of two women writers, one white, one black, one despairing, one optimistic, who challenge the role society allocates to women. (2,700 words) Tom Stoppard (1937-) In Search of Reality: The evolution of ideas in the early work (1960-1974) of Tom Stoppard. Ian Mackean looks at the serious side of Stoppard, exploring his early plays, particularly Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. (10,000 words) Top Margaret Atwood (1939-) 'Gertrude Talks Back' Rewriting canonical portrayals of women. Margaret Atwood's 'Gertrude Talks Back', from the short story collection Good Bones. By Pilar Cuder Domínguez. Universidad de Huelva. (3,400 words) Margaret Atwood The treatment of the female protagonists in Margaret Atwood's Bodily Harm and The Handmaid's Tale. Justine looks at the presentation of women and their roles in two of Margaret Atwood's novels. (5,600 words) Jamaica Kincaid, Merle Hodge, George Lamming The two worlds of the child: A study of the novels of three West Indian writers. Tannistho Ghosh and Priyanka Basu study Lucy by Jamaica Kincaid, Crick Crack Monkey by Merle Hodge, and In the Castle of my Skin by George Lamming. (3,700 words) Top The Liverpool Poets The Mersey Sound. An introduction to the Liverpool Poets Adrian Henri, Roger McGough and Brian Patten, their rise to fame giving live poetry readings in Liverpool in the 1960s, and their association with the Beat poets of America, particularly Alan Ginsberg, and the Pop Art movement. By Ian Mackean (1,800 words) Brian Patten Life, Love, Death, and Poetry in the Work of Brian Patten. S. N. Radhika Lakshmi introduces the poet Brian Patten, who emerged in the sixties as one of 'The Liverpool Poets', then looks at his treatment of the themes of life, love, and death in his work, and rounds off her essay with a look at his attitude to poetry itself. (3,800 words) Ian McEwan: The Cement Garden Shadows on the Mind. Nick Ambler studies urban alienation and the mental landscape of the children in Ian McEwan's first novel, The Cement Garden. (2,700 words) Top Jennifer Maiden: The Winter Baby Hitting wintry waters. Trivikrama Kumari Jamwal offers a reading of Austrailain poet Jennifer Maiden's 1990 volume The Winter Baby. (4,000 words) Alice, Harry Potter and the Computer Game And Alice Played a Video Game. Souvik Mukherjee studies the relationship between children's fantasy adventure stories and interactive computer games. (4,100 words) The Spy in the Computer Souvik Mukherjee shows how computer games, as a modern narrative form, draw on and develop the tradition of espionage fiction. (2,400 words) Photography and the New Native American Aesthetic Heather-Ann Wickers examines the theories of native American writer Leslie Marmon Silko and considers her view that photography can become a modern replacement for the native American oral tradition. (1,700 words) Top Other Essays Andrei Tarkovsky (1932-1986) Filmography and Bibliography An introduction to the life and work of the Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky, with filmography and bibliography. By Ian Mackean. (4,900 words) Aspects of Australia An Epic for a Great Southern Land. Kerry White offers a condensed history of Australia, from ancient times to present day, in epic form. This original piece of work will make useful background reading for anyone studying Australian literature or history. (4,200 words) Top Early Christianity Constantine’s Impact on Christianity. Ian Mugford presents an account of how the status of Christianity and the process of becoming a Christian changed as a result of Constantine's conversion to the faith in the third and early fourth centuries (2,000 words) Jon Jost: American Independent Film-Maker Jon Jost, the Early Films (1963-1983). An introduction to the early films of the American independent film-maker Jon Jost, director of Sure Fire and All the Vermeers in New York, exploring the development of his work during his first twenty years of film-making. By Ian Mackean. (13,200 words) The Prisoner Who is Number One? An Introduction to Patrick McGoohan's Science Fiction TV series of the 1960s. By Francis Farrell. (1,700 words) Source : http://www.literature-study-online.com/essays/ © Copyright 2000 - 2011 Ian Mackean. All rights reserved. | Privacy policy

Teen moms? Killer kids? 6 best young adult novel-for adult

Suicide, pregnancy, murder and adultery: These are probably the last topics you’d expect to find as you peruse the young adult section of the bookstore. Yet all of these grown-up topics are approached with humor and depth in books geared toward the 14-and-older set. It's no wonder more and more fiction writers are trying their hand at this genre; between teens and adults, the market for these books is huge. Conversely, many authors who have found success with young audiences are choosing to revisit their characters in adulthood, an extra treat for readers who have grown up with a series. Young adult novels are quick to draw you in, as they’re easy reads, and surprisingly absorbing: You'll find yourself polishing them off in just a few sittings, and racing to the bookstore for the next installment. Here are a few to get lost in this summer. Amazon.com Sisterhood Everlasting (Random House) In "Sisterhood Everlasting", New York Times best-selling author Ann Brashares visits the four protagonists of her popular series, "Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants," in their adulthood. Carmen, Lena, Bridget and Tibby are all approaching 30 and barely in touch when Tibby sends them plane tickets to reunite in Greece. The girls are excited to be back together, but tragedy cuts their reunion short, and they must once again rely on the power of their friendship to get them through. Brashares makes a powerful and moving transition into adult fiction for readers who have grown up with her beloved characters. Stranger than fiction: 8 celebrity novelists Amazon.com Spoiled (Poppy) Fans of Jessica Morgan and Heather Cocks, the hilariously caustic duo behind the popular Hollywood fashion blog “GoFugYourself,” will not be disappointed with their debut novel. "Spoiled"is packed with all the Hollywood snark and pop-culture references readers of their blog have come to expect — plus an impressive amount of pathos for what could otherwise be a bubblegum novel. Brooke and Molly, both 16, get the surprising news that they share a father, movie star Brick Berlin. So Molly moves to Beverly Hills and war erupts as the girls tussle with each other for clothes, tabloid spreads and, most of all, their father’s affection. Amazon.com Advertise | AdChoices Advertise | AdChoices Advertise | AdChoices Slam (Putnam Juvenile) Beloved British novelist Nick Hornby, author of "High Fidelity" and "About A Boy," made his young adult debut in 2007 with "Slam," a laugh-out-loud book about teen pregnancy. Despite the topic, an after-school special this is not: Protagonist Sam is a loveable skater, more confused by his sudden fatherhood than disgruntled by it. The adult characters are just as flawed as the teens, and Hornby ties the whole book together with a truly imaginative conceit: Sam’s best friend is a poster of legendary Tony Hawk, who talks back to him (or rather quotes Hawk’s autobiography). Slam is like visiting Hornby’s lost-boy adult characters in younger form — and the result is deeply endearing. Amazon.com The Hunger Games Trilogy (Scholastic) This fantasy trilogy by Suzanne Collins has managed to have the same fanatic affect on adults that the "Twilight" series has on tweens. The story follows 16 year-old Katniss, a hard-edged young girl who is chosen to represent her village in the ruthless and cruel Hunger Games. Katniss must kill or be killed by the other contestants in order to win food for her family. The book is sometimes brutal, sometimes tender, and always fast paced. Grown-up readers will want to polish off the trilogy in one weekend — and then join the growing number of adult fans who are eagerly anticipating the movie version, due out next winter. Amazon.com Sweet Valley Confidential (St. Martin’s Press) Fans of “Sweet Valley High”, the popular Francine Pascal book series that dominated young adult bookshelves from 1983 on, will be thrilled to be reunited with Jessica and Elizabeth Wakefield. Now 27, Elizabeth is working at a theater magazine in New York, after discovering that Jessica has been having an on-off affair for five years with Elizabeth’s childhood sweetheart, Todd. The book is every bit as soapy as the original Sweet Valley incarnations, but fans of the series shouldn’t miss the opportunity to visit the dramatic Wakefield twins, all grown up. Sweet Valley twins' return causes fan frenzy Amazon.com Divergent (Katherine Tegen Books) Beatrice Powell is a young girl living in a dystopian Chicago, where society is divided into five groups based on virtues: Candor (the honest), Abnegation (the selfless), Dauntless (the brave), Amity (the peaceful), and Erudite (the intelligent). On her 16th birthday, Beatrice must choose which faction to join — should she follow her true talents, even if it means being separated from her family? Divergent is the latest young adult fantasy series to capture the imagination of adult readers with its strong female protagonist, thrilling dystopian scenarios and surprisingly romantic moments. © 2011 MSNBC Interactive. Reprints

Principles for Paragraphs

Paragraph development rules. Samples paragraphs More samples of point-sentence locations. Location of point sentence in science writing. Paragraph development rules: Fixed Issue | Discussion Variable Point | (Point) 1. A cohesive paragraph has consistent topic strings. Consistent topics constitute the core idea(s) that drive the paragraph. Further they concentrate the readers attention on a particular point of view. Topic strings focus your reader's attention on what a passage is globally about. 2. A cohesive paragraph introduces new topic in a predictable location: at the end of the sentence(s) that introduce the paragraph. These introductory sentence are called the issue. The rest of the paragraph is discussion aimed at making the paragraph's point. 3. A coherent paragraph will usually have a single sentence that clearly articulates its point. This is the *point* sentence. The most common problem that writers have with points is that they fail to articulate them clearly, and so the reader doesn't get the point of the paragraph, of a section, or of a whole document. Or worse, the reader gets the wrong one. By *point* we mean the specific sentence which the writer would send as a telegram if asked "What's your point?" The better question is not "What's your point," but "Where's your POINT?" 4. A coherent paragraph will typically locate that point sentence in one of two places: at the end of the issue or the end of the paragraph. The issue may be as long as three sentences, the last of which must be the point sentence. Sample paragraphs. Find the POINT sentence in the following paragraphs. Though most economists believe that business decisions are guided by a simple law of maximum profits, in fact they result from a vector of influences acting from many directions. When an advertiser selects a particular layout, for example, he depends not only on sales expectations or possible profit but also on what the present fad is. He is concerned with what colleagues, and competitors will think, beliefs about the actions of the FTC, concerns about Catholics or the the American Legion, whether Chicanos or Italian-Americans will be offended, how the "silent majority" will react. He might even be worried whether the wife or secretary of the decision maker will approve. Our main concern was to empirically test the theory that forms the background for this work. To a great extent, we have succeeded in showing our theory is valid. Chapter Two reports a study which shows that the rate of perceiving variations in length relates directly to the number of connectives in the base structure of the test. In Chapter Three, we report a study that found that subjects perceive as variable units only what the theory claims is a unit. Another series of crucial studies is the comparison and contrast experiments reported in Chapter Four, which shows that we do not distinguish complex concepts of different lengths as some current theories do. The United States is at present the world's largest exporter of agricultural products. Its agricultural net balance of payments in recent years has exceeded $10 billion a year. As rising costs of imported petroleum and other goods have increased the U.S. trade deficit, this agricultural surplus has taken on great financial importance in both the domestic and international markets. First, agricultural exports maintain profitable market prices for the American farmer and and bolster the national economy by providing over one million jobs. The income from farm exports alone is used to purchase $9 billion worth of domestic farm machinery and equipment annually. Exports of U.S. agricultural products also reduce price-depressing surpluses. Without exports, the government would be subsidizing American farmers more than $10 billion a year over the current rate. Finally, agricultural exports provide an entry to foreign markets that can be exploited by other industries. We can say that two people use the same language--or dialects of that language--if they can understand each other's speech. If they can't communicate, they are speaking separate languages. But linguists define languages politically and culturally, as well as by degree of comprehension. Mandarin and Cantonese are not mutuallly intelligible, yet both are Chinese. They are held together by an army and a navy and share a common system of writing, as well a common cultural definition of what it means to be Chinese. Serbian and Croatian are mutually intelligible, although they use different alphabets, but, because of their separate armies, what once was Serbo-Croatian is now considered by Serbs and Croats to be two separate languages. Most linguists think of black English, or African-American Vernancul English, as a dialect or variety of English. It may exhibit some features derived from African languages, but is readily recognized and understandable as English. As the experimental evidence has accumulated, it has begun to seem that if quarks are real particles at all, they must be permanently bound within the nuclear particles. Any theory of quark interactions ought to account for this phenomena, which is called quark confinement. It is easy to construct pictorial models of particles such as the proton in which the constituent quarks are confined. For example, the quarks can be thought of as being fastened to ends of an unbreakable string, they are then free to move about the volume defined by the length of the string but cannot wander away from each other. It is a formidable task, however, to formulate a theory that can account for the permanent binding of quarks and the structure of nuclear paricles without violating the constraints imposed by the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, and the principle of ordinary causality. [Answers: sentence 1, 2, 3, 3 and 2.] More examples of the location of point sentence. Opening paragraph of a document. Man's fascination with machinery that move under their own power and control is at least as old as recorded history. In Aristotle's Greece, plays of several acts are said to have been performed entirely by automatic puppets driven by weights hung on twisted cords. Much later European royalties were enthralled by lifelike automata that could write, draw and play musical instruments. In recent year most of the magical aura surrounding mechanical automata has been dispelled. Today automatic machines and industrial robots are used in factories throughout the world to perform tasks that are too hazardous, too onerous, too boring, or simply too uneconomic for human beings to undertake. [The rest of the document is on modern use of robots.] Two examples where the point is last. Something has happened to the American male's need to display the signs of stereotypical masculinity that once seemed necessary for the survival on the frontier. For a long time, American males were confident in their manhood, sure of their sexual roles and images. Indeed the rugged frontiersmen never even thought about their masculinity; they were simply men surviving in a dangerous world and dressing the part. Then in the nineteenth century, our ideal male became the cowboy, then the world adventurer, then the war hero. They all were confident of themselves and unselfconsciously dressed their part. But in this century, something happened: Hemingway's heroes, for example, seemed to feel that they had to prove that it was still important to be a man among men, and our image of them is one of a kind of Brooks Brothers ruggedness. They seemed less confident that masculinity had a real function. Now one can detects a new theme: as the male image as conqueror and survivor has lost its value, men have felt free to dress in ways once thought feminine, to wear earrings, even to wear makeup. These signs of a change in the American male's sexual image of himself suggests something deeper than changes in appearance: he is adapting to a world in which image of traditional masculinity is no longer necessary for survival. 0: Event not found. The tasks of stripping, cleaning, and waxing floors may sound trivial, but in circumstances commonly found in the janitorial world require some ingenuity. Not only is the supervising janitor most often asleep, but also the bottles with the various cleaning products have long since lost their labels. Using the wrong product at the wrong time could ruin the floor tile. Science, experimental science, comes to the rescue. Using a different bottled fluid on extra tiles tells something about each one. More experiments reveal their interactions in various combinations. The proper order is recorded for future novice janitors. Then I can safely use my newfound knowledge to strip, clean, and wax the floor -- in the trade, the so-called "strip and re-coat" procedure. To those who scoff that this is not science, I ask them to imagine that the bottled products were instead naturally occurring substances. Then probing their properties would be respected by the scientific community. The essence and power of science lies in its methodology, not in its application. Location of point sentence for academic and non-science community. 1. If the paragraph is a body paragraph, i.e., it does not introduce a section or whole document, the point sentence can be (a) at the end of the introductory issue, and/or (b) at the end of the paragraph. 2. But if the paragraph introduces a section or even a whole document, then you should put your POINT sentence at the end of the paragraph. Location of point sentence for science/engineering community. BUT, in nonacademic situations, most readers don't like that kind of organization. They want to see the point up front. So unless you can justify creating a point-last document (see below), don't do it. Even if you put the point first, observe the following two principles. At the end of the introductory issue of your document, you must a. offer some promise of specific anticipatory point sentence(s) that clearly promise a main point still to come; and b. include toward the end of that anticipatory point sentence the themes and topics that you will pursue. In other words, no matter where the point sentence is, you must always frame the space that the reader is about to enter Why point-last document? (NOT!) 1. Timidity or Politeness. If document delivers bad news, some think they should first provide the history, evidence and reasoning. Bad idea. 2. Discovery. Some writers want the reader to work through an argument or body of data to experience a sense of discovery. In science this is wrong headed. If you are selling a conclusion, it is much better to put the conclusion at the front so that the reader or listener will focus on the argument to see what parts are necessary to reach the conclusion. 3. Failure to revise. Often we just start writing having no idea where we are going or what the point sentence is until we discover it. If we don't revise, then the points -- if they are explicit at all -- are distributed randomly through the document. Plan ahead with a sentence outline and avoid this. Souerce : http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/writing/Handouts/paragraph.html

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How to Write Poetry Do you want to learn how to write poetry or how to improve as a poet? Would you like step-by-step advice on how to get poetry ideas and turn them into poems? You're in the right place! Find answers to these questions: * "What should I write poems about?" * "How should I decide the right form for my poem?" * "What are common poetry problems that affect the work of new poets, and how can I avoid them?" * "People say it's not the size that matters, but what you do with it -- how does this relate to poetry?" Do you like this page? Please click the +1 button to recommend it. How to Write Poetry - Contents Definition of Poetry. What is poetry, and how is it different from other types of writing? Here is CWN's take on these questions. Poem Structure. How should a poem be divided into lines? ("At random" is the wrong answer to this question!) Here you'll find some better ideas about choosing the right structure for your poem. Poetry Meter. What poetic meter is, and why you should care. An easy-to-understand guide to the rhythmic side of poetry. Rhyme Schemes. Rhyme is an important tool in your poetry toolbox. Why do some poets intentionally choose rhymes that aren't exact? What's the rhyme scheme of a limerick? Find out here! How to Write a Poem - Poetry Techniques 1. A step-by-step guide on how to write poetry. Advice on what to write about, how to get started, and choosing the right words. How to Write a Poem - Poetry Techniques 2. Advice on how to write well about abstractions such as Love and Death, how to choose a form for your poem, and a checklist to improve your poetry writing. How to Write Poems - Poetry Techniques 3. Can you guess the most common problems which damage the work of new poets? Find out how to write poetry without falling into these traps. Types of Poems - How to Write a Sonnet. A clear explanation of the sonnet form, plus poem starters for writing your own sonnet. Types of Poems - How to Write: Acrostic Poems, Blank Verse, Sestinas. Explanations of these poem types with ideas for trying them yourself. Download a free poetry tool to help you write sestinas. Poem Types - How to Write a Narrative Poem or Ballad.. Explanations and examples of narrative poetry. Advice on writing your own narrative poem or ballad and poetry prompts to get you started. Poem Types - How to Write a Limerick. Limericks are a lot of fun to read and write. They don't have to be dirty -- that's up to you. Get started here. Poem Types - How to Write a Haiku. Haiku is a Japanese poetry form which captures a moment in just a few words. Learn how to preserve your own insights and memories by writing haiku. Poem Types - Found Poetry. Writing found poetry is a kind of treasure hunt. Learn to discover poetic material in surprising places and turn it into poems. Interview: Michael Klam on Poetry Slams. Poet, teacher, and translator Michael Klam spoke to us about poetry slams, performance poetry, and literary translation. Interview: Karl Elder on Language Poetry. Karl Elder offers his view on the limitations of language poetry and the "aesthetic of chance." Interview: Jessie Carty on Narrative Poems. Jessie Carty talks about her poetic influences and her experience as the editor of a literary magazine. If you like this page, please click the +1 button to recommend it. << BACK from How to Write Poetry to Creative Writing Now Home Share this page: What's This? Facebook Twitter Enjoy this page? Please pay it forward. Here's how... Would you prefer to share this page with others by linking to it? 1. Click on the HTML link code below. 2. Copy and paste it, adding a note of your own, into your blog, a Web page, forums, a blog comment, your Facebook account, or anywhere that someone would find this page valuable. How to Write Poetry - Creative Writing Lessons © 2010 William Victor, S.L., All Rights Reserved. Terms - Privacy - Returns & Cancellations - Affiliate Disclosure

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"Intensive English Program" IEP lacks accreditation for paying students Posted on 03 February 2011. Tags: Ayumi Kawaski, Intensive English Program, International Students, Laura Tholen, Roy Briggeman, Yang Hui When international students study in America, they are expected to be able to pass English exams to show that they are knowledgeable enough of the language to attend classes taught in English. But students who don’t meet the requirements must take classes through the ESU Intensive English Program – classes that students don’t currently receive academic credit for, despite paying $6,600 for all four classes at once, according to the Office of International Education’s website. Students must take those classes before moving on to academic classes, but there are several ways to be exempt from taking part in the program which includes passing one of two English proficiency exams available, being from a country that speaks English as its native language or having a degree from an English speaking country. “It is not fair because I want to graduate as soon as possible, but I took IEP classes last semester and I couldn’t receive any credit, so I can’t graduate as soon as (what would have been) possible,” said Ayumi Kawaski, freshman communications major from Japan. If students are in four IEP classes, they are considered full time students and are not allowed to take other academic classes. If they are in three IEP classes, one additional academic class is allowed, and so forth. If they are in full time IEP classes, then they have class 20 hours per week, as every class meets every day, said Roy Briggeman, assistant director of the Intensive English Program. “(The program) is really good,” said Yang Hui, junior elementary education major from China. “Our instructors are very professional and they try their best to help us to improve our English. And they know our advantages and disadvantages about English.” But Hui said that since international students in IEP classes spend so much time and energy on completing their assignments, they should receive credit for the courses. Briggeman said that academic credit for IEP courses should be available within the next two years, as the program is currently in the process of accreditation. “As a program, we think that credit for classes is something that the university needs to look at, and I think they are. We are working on becoming accredited and we think that maybe when the IEP becomes accredited, perhaps then we can peruse the idea of having some credit for classes,” Briggeman said. Although some international students feel that the program is unfair, due to the strict attendance requirements, constant writing assignments and the fact that American students are allowed to take a foreign language and receive credit for it, they also feel that it helps them progress quite a bit as English speakers. “Like, in writing class, we have assignments every day, such as how to write a newsletter…although it is difficult, it is very helpful,” Hui said. Some ESU students thought the extra classes in English would be helpful to international students. “International students don’t know English quite as well (as native speakers) and in order to progress, they need to take more English classes… the opposite goes for Americans learning foreign languages because they can choose whether or not to continue their studies in that foreign language, whereas the international students, who are already here, clearly have chosen to take classes in America in English, and so they need to further that skill,” said Laura Tholen, freshman biochemistry and molecular biology major. By Samantha Jones Send article as PDF to PDF Posted in Coverage, NewsComments (0) Letter to the Editor: Jan. 27, 2011 Posted on 27 January 2011. Tags: class credit, English placement, IEP tests, Intensive English Program When international students come to ESU, they need to have the English placement tests if they have no any certificates in English. If they failed in IEP tests, they should take IEP classes, which is short for Intensive English Program and focuses on improving the English of English learners. To our surprise, we can’t receive any credit for IEP classes. Compared to IEP students, American students can receive credits when they learn second languages. For instance, when they take Spanish or French, they will receive five credits. As a result, we think it’s unfair to IEP students and we think that IEP students should receive credits for IEP classes. Before international students enroll, they need to pay money for IEP classes. For example, Denghao, who has four IEP classes this semester, paid three thousand and three hundred dollars for these classes. Although he paid so much money and had difficult classes, he still can’t receive credit for IEP classes. That really makes him feel frustrated. There is another unfair situation for IEP students who can’t receive credit for classes. Ai Date, who is an exchange student in ESU, will just stay here for one year. Because she has to take some IEP classes, she doesn’t have enough time to take academic classes. But she should bring credits as many as she can to her Japan collage after one year. There are fierce competitions in Japan so Ai feels stressed when she can’t receive credit for IEP classes. Similarly, Ayumi has the same opinion. She wants to get a bachelor degree in ESU. As usual, it takes American students four years to graduate from ESU. But international students who enter this university at 18 years old and take some IEP classes would graduate when they are older than 22. Ayumi thought that if IEP students can’t receive credit for classes, it prevents them from advancing to society early as workers. IEP students have a busy day. Nobu, who has four IEP classes, has a very busy day. “It takes me four hours to take IEP classes every day. In addition, I have read a difficult text book in my reading class, taken a lot of tests and tutoring for my structure class, written a lot of essays in my writing class and had a presentation and three reaction reports in my speaking class.” Because he should finish lots of assignments, he said, “I have studied a lot of things in IEP classes.” After finishing lots of tasks in IEP classes, each student gains a lot. Based on this argument, we want to list what IEP students have done in advanced writing class. Our writing instructor gives us some assignments every day. In his class, we have learned how to make our essays formats more professional, including how to change them into APA/MLA formats. In addition, we have learned how to plan a big project, such as how to work with your teammates and publish prefect newsletters. “The newsletters that we have made have given much useful information to international students,” said Dahao Yu. Some reactions of IEP students reflect that IEP classes can improve our English with many kinds of activities. Some of the tasks took IEP students much more time than homework in our academic classes. Above all, we think that IEP students endeavored to learn English in IEP classes, and most of them made big progress in improving their English. They should receive credit for classes, because it is effective to encourage them to study English better and make them feel fair. © 2010 ESU Bulletin

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Cara Penulisan Daftar Pustaka (Dari Internet, Buku, Artikel, Jurnal, Koran) Posted by anascava on June 17, 2010, filed in: Info 3 Artikel ini didasari oleh seringnya saya jumpai teman mahasiswa yang salah dalam menuliskan daftar referensi atau acuan dalam skripsi atau laporan ilmiah. Eh… yang benar tuh daftar referensi/acuan atau daftar pustaka ya? sama nggak ya kedua istilah tersebut? jangan-jangan… keduanya beda. Hayoo sama nggak? Dulu saya sendiri menganggapnya sama. Tetapi setelah saya coba cari-cari di internet mengenai kedua hal tersebut, ternyata… keduanya beda. Daftar acuan berisi informasi yang diacu dari sumber lain yang dimanfaatkan dalam penelitian, dan dikutip baik esensinya maupun statement lengkapnya dalam teks penulisan tesis/disertasi atau laporan penelitian. Penulis dari sumber informasi yang diacu ini harus tercatat dalam Daftar Acuan pada halaman terakhir dari penulisannya. Nah… daftar acuan ini hanya terdapat dalam laporan penelitian, skripsi, tesis maupun disertasi. Sedangkan Daftar Pustaka adalah daftar bacaan yang disarankan untuk dibaca dan tidak diacu dalam tulisan, baik dalam tesis/disertasi/laporan, tetapi sekedar untuk memperluas wawasan bagi mereka yang ingin mengetahuinya lebih lanjut. Daftar Pustaka tidak disarankan dalam penulisan laporan penelitian, skripsi, tesis dan disertasi. Maksudnya tentu agar penelitian, skripsi, tesis dan disertasi memanfaatkan sumber informasi yang telah ada atau penelitian yang telah dilakukan orang lain untuk dikembangkan sebagai inspirasi penelitian baru atau membangun suatu informasi baru. Kedua statement di atas saya ambil dari apa yang ditulis oleh Jacub Rais (Anggota Dewan Riset Nasional). Tulisannya dapat dibuka melalui situs http://mit.biotrop.org OK setelah kita tahu keduanya ternyata beda, sekarang kita tinjau bagaimana cara menulis daftar acuan yang benar sesuai dengan aturan atau format ilmiah? Tentu kita tahu bahwa sumber referensi yang dapat dijadikan sebagai acuan kita dalam menuliskan laporan penelitian, skripsi, tesis maupun disertasi sangat banyak. Bisa berasal dari jurnal ilmiah, internet, email, artikel di koran dan majalah, dokumen resmi, makalah seminar dll, yang masing-masing sumber memiliki aturan yang berbeda dalam penulisannya dalam daftar acuan. Berikut ini beberapa contoh penulisan daftar acuan yang baku dari berbagai sumber referensi Buku: Anderson , D.W., Vault, V.D. & Dickson, C.E. 1999. Problems and Prospects for the Decades Ahead: Competency Based Teacher Education . Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing Co. Buku kumpulan artikel: Saukah, A. & Waseso, M.G. (Eds.). 2002. Menulis Artikel untuk Jurnal Ilmiah (Edisi ke-4, cetakan ke-1). Malang: UM Press. Artikel dalam buku kumpulan artikel: Russel, T. 1998. An Alternative Conception: Representing Representation. Dalam P.J. Black & A. Lucas (Eds.), Children’s Informal Ideas in Science (hlm. 62-84). London: Routledge. Artikel dalam jurnal atau majalah: Kansil, C.L. 2002. Orientasi Baru Penyelenggaraan Pendidikan Program Profesional dalam Memenuhi Kebutuhan Dunia Industri. Transpor , XX (4): 57-61. Proceeding Konferensi atau Simposium Australian Association of Social Workers. 1969. Social issues of today. Proceedings of the Australian Association of Social Workers’ 11th Annual Conference. Hobart, Australia. pp 17-34 Artikel dalam koran: Pitunov, B. 13 Desember, 2002. Sekolah Unggulan ataukah Sekolah Pengunggulan? Majapahit Pos , hlm. 4 & 11. Tulisan/berita dalam koran (tanpa nama pengarang): Jawa Pos. 22 April, 1995 . Wanita Kelas Bawah Lebih Mandiri, hlm. 3. Dokumen resmi: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. 1978. Pedoman Penulisan Laporan Penelitian . Jakarta: Depdikbud. Undang-undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 2 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional.1990. Jakarta: PT Armas Duta Jaya. Undang-undang, Peraturan Pemerintah, Keppres Republik Indonesia. 1992. Undang-Undang No. 24 Tahun 1992 tentang Penataan Ruang. Lembaran Negara RI Tahun 1992, No. 115. Sekretariat Negara. Jakarta. Buku terjemahan: Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C. & Razavieh, A. 1976. Pengantar Penelitian Pendidikan . Terjemahan oleh Arief Furchan. 1982. Surabaya: Usaha Nasional. Ensiklopedia, Kamus Stafford-Clark, D. 1978. Mental disorders and their treatment. The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 23: 956-975. Chicago, USA . Echols, J.M. dan Shadily, H. (Eds). 1989. Kamus Inggris – Indonesia. PT Gramedia. Jakarta. Skripsi, Tesis, Disertasi, Laporan Penelitian: Kuncoro, T. 1996. Pengembangan Kurikulum Pelatihan Magang di STM Nasional Malang Jurusan Bangunan, Program Studi Bangunan Gedung: Suatu Studi Berdasarkan Kebutuhan Dunia Usaha Jasa Konstruksi . Tesis tidak diterbitkan. Malang: PPS IKIP MALANG. Makalah seminar, lokakarya, penataran: Waseso, M.G. 2001. Isi dan Format Jurnal Ilmiah . Makalah disajikan dalam Seminar Lokakarya Penulisan Artikel dan Pengelolaan Jurnal Ilmiah, Universitas Lambungmangkurat, Banjarmasin , 9-11 Agustus. Internet (karya individual): Hitchcock, S., Carr, L. & Hall, W. 1996. A Survey of STM Online Journals, 1990-1995: The Calm before the Storm , (Online), (http://journal.ecs.soton.ac.uk/survey/survey.html , diakses 12 Juni 1996). Internet (artikel dalam jurnal online): Kumaidi. 1998. Pengukuran Bekal Awal Belajar dan Pengembangan Tesnya. Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan . (Online), Jilid 5, No. 4, (http://www.malang.ac.id/artikel/pengukuran-bekal-awal.htm , diakses 20 Januari 2010). Internet (forum diskusi online): Wilson, D. 20 November 1995 . Summary of Citing Internet Sites. NETTRAIN Discussion List , (Online), (NETTRAIN@ubvm.cc.buffalo.edu , diakses 22 Februari 2010). Internet (e-mail pribadi): Naga, D.S. (ikip-jkt@indo.net.id ). 1 Oktober 2009. Artikel untuk JIP . E-mail kepada Ali Saukah (jippsi@mlg.ywcn.or.id ). Kaset Video Burke, J. 2009. Distant Voices, BBC Videocasette , London, UK. 45 mins. Film (Movie) Oldfield, B. (Producer) 1977. On the edge of the forest. Tasmanian Film Corporation. Hobart, Austraalia,. 30 mins. Slides (Kumpulan Slides) Reidy, J.F. 1987. The Thorax Slides. Grave Medical Audiovisual Library. Chelmsford, UK. 54 mins. Sumber : http://leoriset.blogspot.com dan http://mit.biotrop.org Pencarian anda: cara penulisan daftar pustaka dari internet, cara menulis daftar pustaka, penulisan daftar pustaka, cara membuat daftar pustaka dari internet, penulisan daftar pustaka dari jurnal, contoh daftar pustaka dari internet, DAFTAR PUSTAKA INTERNET, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari internet, cara penulisan daftar pustaka, daftar pustaka dari koran, daftar pustaka dari internet, daftar pustaka jurnal, menulis daftar pustaka, contoh penulisan daftar pustaka dari internet, daftar pustaka buku, cara membuat daftar pustaka, daftar pustaka koran, cara penulisan daftar pustaka jurnal, contoh daftar pustaka jurnal, penulisan daftar pustaka yang benar dari internet, contoh daftar pustaka dari jurnal, penulisan daftar pustaka dari internet, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari buku, penulisan daftar pustaka jurnal, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari jurnal, contoh daftar pustaka dari koran, penulisan daftar pustaka dari koran, penulisan daftar pustaka dari buku, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari koran, membuat daftar pustaka dari internet, penulisan daftar pustaka internet, contoh penulisan daftar pustaka dari jurnal, daftar pustaka artikel, daftar pustaka dari majalah, aturan penulisan daftar pustaka, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari artikel, cara penulisan daftar pustaka dari jurnal, menulis daftar pustaka dari jurnal, cara membuat daftar pustaka dari jurnal, cara menulis situs dalam daftar pustaka, daftar pustaka, DAFTAR PUSTAKA DARI ARTIKEL, Penulisan daftar pustaka dari artikel, cara penulisan daftar pustaka yang benar, menulis daftar pustaka dari internet, contoh daftar pustaka koran, cara penulisan daftar pustaka dari koran, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari internet yang benar, cara penulisan daftar pustaka dari buku, teknik penulisan daftar pustaka Tags: cara membuat daftar pustaka, cara menulis daftar pustaka dari internet, cara penulisan daftar pustaka dari internet, cara penulisan daftar pustaka jika referensi dari internet, contoh penulisan referensi, contoh tata cara penulisan daftar pustaka, penulisan daftar pustaka yang benar, tata cara penulisan daftar pustaka. © 2010 ANASCAVA.COM. 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Rape-Related English and Yoruba Proverbs Journal article by Yisa Kehinde Yusuf; Women and Language, Vol. 21, 1998 Journal Article Excerpt See below... Ads by Google 7 Star Purchasing Report Shows the 7 Things you must do as a Purchasing Manager. Get Report Here purchasing-procurement-center.com Rp. 300.000 in Free Ads Gain New Customers In Just 30 Mins With Google AdWords. Sign Up Now! www.Google.com/AdWords Orchid Virus Test Fast and easy orchid virus testing Detect ORSV/CymMV in minutes www.agdia.com Rape-related English and Yoruba proverbs. by Yisa Kehinde Yusuf Introduction A proverb has been defined as a short, repeated, witty statement or set of statements of wisdom, truth and experience which is used to further a social end (see Mieder 1989a; Seitel 1981; Egblewogbe 1980). About the truth of proverbs, Kirshenblatt-Gimblett (1973:821) notes, following Malof (1966), that Neat symmetries and witty convergences of sound and meaning, tight formulations of logical relations, highly patterned repetitions, structural balance, and familiar metaphors encapsulate general principles and contribute to the feeling that anything that sounds so right must be true. She states that, contrary to this feeling, a proverb "expresses relative rather than absolute truths" (p. 821). She justifies this claim with the fact a proverb may express more than one meaning which may contradict one another. According to Albig (1931:529), "the proverb is a social definition of a situation." Oduyoye (1979:5) also notes that "proverbs, aphorisms and other pithy sayings serve as socialisation maxims." Similarly, Page and Washington (1987:50) observe that Once internalized, proverbs, like values, become unconscious as well as conscious standards for action and attitudes toward self and others . . . Proverbs, like values, protect the self against feelings of inadequacy and frustration, allowing us to rationalize beliefs, attitudes and actions that would otherwise be personally and socially unacceptable. The foregoing views accord with what is referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the belief that language may influence thought and behaviour (see, e.g., Sapir 1949; Whorf 1956; Fishman 1982). The views also agree with Taylor's (1981) belief that, in difficult social situations, people who turn to proverbs find answers there. One such difficult situation is created by the prevalence of rape which the present study defines as engaging in a sexual act with a woman, without her consent, usually through the use of force, coercion or deceit (see Herman 1989). According to Sheffield (1989:9-10), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Uniform Crime Report for 1987 estimates that in the United States "a rape occurs every two minutes." Relatedly, based on information from the Federal Bureau of Justice (1992), Shugart (1994:12) notes that, in the United States, "current statistics indicate that one in three women will be raped in her lifetime, and conditions appear likely that these statistics will be even higher by the turn of the century." A series of studies link cultural rape myths from a heterogeneous set of sources with these alarming statistics (see, e.g., Herman 1989; Margolin & Moran 1989; Shugart 1994). Such sexist rape myths include: "All women want to be raped. No woman can be raped if she doesn't want it (You-can't-thread-a-moving needle argument). She asked for it. She changed her mind afterwards. When she says no she means yes. If you are going to be raped you might as well enjoy it" (Sheffield 1989:14; see, also, Kanin and Parcell 1977). Related rape myths exist in and can be said to be the basis for the various forms of rape that occur in the Yoruba culture of southwestern Nigeria. However, statistics of the kind cited above for the United States are not readily available for the incidence of rape in the Yoruba society. All the same, useful insights can be gained from studying the Anglo-American and Yoruba cultures comparatively in relation to rape-related myths from a single (and probably the most authoritative) folkloristic source, proverbs. This is precisely what the present study intends to do. Basing the study on English and Yoruba proverbs from a number of published and unpublished (misc.) sources derives justification from the fact that proverbs from different cultures may express similar attitudes towards a particular phenomenon (see, e.g., Whiting 1931; Perumal 1986; Litovkina 1990; Paczolay 1993). Moreover, a proverb from one of the cultures may articulate a situation in the other culture quite or even more precisely (see Lewis 1974). This fact is especially important when the two cultures significantly co-exist and, to some extent, diffuse as the Western and Yoruba cultures do in southwestern Nigeria due to the British colonisation of the country, Christianity and the trans-Atlantic trade in African (including Yoruba) slaves. The Proverbial Rape Myths The most basic of the proverbial rape-related myths in both languages is that women are by nature licentious or adulterous. English and Yoruba proverbs propagating or sustaining this sexist view include the following: i. He that has neither fools, whores nor beggars among his kindred is the son of a thundergust (Whiting 1977:162). ii. Why does the blind man's wife paint herself?. (whiting ... Read this entire Journal Article and more with a FREE trial. Read more than 5,000 classic books FREE! Free Newsletter Get helpful how-to's, writing tips, search strategies, quizzes & more! Search the Library Customize Customize your search: Search within the topic [refine search] Search in: Books Journals Magazines Newspapers Encyclopedia Research Topics * Type your specific word or phrase in the box above after the word and, then click Search. * Put exact phrases in double quotation marks. Do not put single words in quotation marks. AddThis Social Bookmarking Widget Add a link to this page Link to This © Questia Media Inc. 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About the Acronym Finder What is an acronym? Want to link your site to the Acronym Finder? Here's how. Free search tools! The Acronym Finder is a searchable database of more than abbreviations and acronyms about computers, technology, telecommunications, and the military. Over the years, the site has received numerous awards. Acronym Finder is not a glossary of terms, web search engine, or dictionary or a thesaurus -- it is only designed to search for and expand acronyms and abbreviations. If you need more information about a word or other reference topic, we highly recommend TheFreeDictionary.com. See Search Tips for information about using the site, including advanced search techniques. If you don't find an acronym or abbreviation in the database, but know its meaning, you may suggest it be added here. If it meets our guidelines, it will be reviewed, verified, edited, and added to our database in our next update (usually several times a week). Acronym Finder currently has over 750,000 human-edited definitions for acronyms and abbreviations. The site receives over 1 million unique visitors from more than 200 countries each month and serves over 4 million page views. According to Alexa's traffic ranking, Acronym Finder is in the top quarter percent of all websites. Acronym Finder has partnered with other respected reference and language companies, including TheFreeDictionary.com, OneLook.com, and Dictionary.com. Acronym Finder is a trusted ready reference resource at thousands of schools, libraries, and government websites. Yahoo reports over 1 million links to Acronym Finder, more than all other similar websites combined. By any measure, it is an "authority" website, trusted by schools, libraries, universities, governments, the defense industry, and translators and interpreters worldwide. Acronym Finder adds more than 5,000 new acronym and abbreviation definitions to its database each month. Every term is reviewed for accuracy, verified from multiple sources, categorized, and edited by an experienced human editor. About the Acronym Finder Team Mike Molloy is the founder and developer of Acronym Finder, the world's largest, most comprehensive acronym and abbreviation reference site, available on the world wide web since 1996. Mike has 20+ years of experience with the US government in the field of computers, communications, information technology (IT), software development, logistics, and strategic planning. He began Acronym Finder's collection of acronyms and abbreviations in 1985. He has been self-employed since 1992, working as an IT consultant and software developer. He also owned and operated a company which provided educational products to US public libraries and schools. For the past 10 years, Mike focused almost exclusively on the for-profit Acronym Finder website. As founder of Acronym Finder, Mike has provided expert legal opinions on matters related to acronyms as they relate to trademarks, servicemarks, and domain names. Mike holds a B.A. in Psychology from Chapman University and an associate degree in computer technology. What's an Acronym? An acronym is a pronounceable word formed from each of the first letters of a descriptive phrase or by combining the initial letters or parts of words from the phrase. Here are some examples of acronyms: North Atlantic Treaty Organization = NATO MODulator/DEModulator = MODEM An acronym is actually a type of abbreviation. Our database contains abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms and we make no distinction between them in our database or on our site. We are more interested in defining "acronyms" for you than we are in trying to properly distinguish between abbreviations, acronyms, and initialisms. Though you sometimes see acronyms or abbreviations written with periods after each letter (e.g., U.S.A.), we don't use that form here. When entering search terms, don't include the periods (unless the acronym normally contains a period, i.e., X.25). Want to see a nested acronym? SRK contains three levels of "nested" acronyms (this is not made-up). Want to have some fun with "buzzword acronyms?" Generate acronyms from our implementation of Philip Broughton's Systematic Buzz Phrase Projector. noindextestingnow Home | Help | About | What's New? | Suggest new acronym | Link to Us | Search Tools | Press State Abbreviations | Partners | Contributors | Return Links | Statistics | Fun Buzzword Acronyms! | Read the AF Blog All trademarks/service marks referenced on this site are properties of their respective owners. The Acronym Finder is ©1988-2011, Acronym Finder, All Rights Reserved. Feedback Terms of usage | Licensing info | Advertising info | Privacy Policy | Site Map

Ten Types of Grammar

Different Ways of Analyzing the Structures and Functions of Language

By Richard Nordquist, About.com Guide
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English Grammar

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So you think you know grammar? All well and good, but which type of grammar do you know?

Linguists are quick to remind us that there are different varieties of grammar--that is, different ways of describing and analyzing the structures and functions of language.

One basic distinction worth making is that between descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar (also called usage). Both are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar examine the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. In contrast, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) try to enforce rules about what they believe to be the correct uses of language.

But that's just the beginning. Consider these ten varieties of grammar--and take your pick.

Comparative Grammar
The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages. Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with "a faculty of language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first language . . .. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence establishes the relationship among all languages." (R. Freidin, Principles and Parameters in Comparative Grammar. MIT Press, 1991)

Generative Grammar
The rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the language. "Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret utterances in a language." (F. Parker and K. Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Allyn and Bacon, 1994)

Mental Grammar
The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand. "All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty (Chomsky, 1965). A grammar formulated by a linguist is an idealized description of this Mental Grammar." (P. W. Culicover and A. Nowak, Dynamical Grammar: Foundations of Syntax II. Oxford Univ. Press, 2003)

Pedagogical Grammar
Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. "Pedaogical grammar is a slippery concept. The term is commonly used to denote (1) pedagogical process--the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems as (part of) language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogical content--reference sources of one kind or another that present information about the target language system; and (3) combinations of process and content." (D. Little, "Words and Their Properties: Arguments for a Lexical Approach to Pedagaogical Grammar." Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, ed. by T. Odlin. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994)

Performance Grammar
A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in dialogues. "[P]erformance grammar . . . centers attention on language production; it is my belief that the problem of production must be dealt with before problems of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated." (John Carroll, "Promoting Language Skills." Perspectives on School Learning: Selected Writings of John B. Carroll, ed. by L. W. Anderson. Erlbaum, 1985)

Reference Grammar
A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Examples of contemporary reference grammars in English include A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, by Randolph Quirk et al. (1985), the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999), and The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002).

Theoretical Grammar
The study of the essential components of any human language. "Theoretical grammar or syntax is concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms of grammar, and in providing scientific arguments or explanations in favour of one account of grammar rather than another, in terms of a general theory of human language." (A. Renouf and A. Kehoe, The Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics. Rodopi, 2003)

Traditional Grammar
The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language. "We say that traditional grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the distinction between what some people do with language and what they ought to do with it, according to a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper language." (J. D. Williams, The Teacher's Grammar Book. Routledge, 2005)

Transformational Grammar
A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. "In transformational grammar, the term 'rule' is used not for a precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet regularly followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction for forming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native speaker." (D. Bornstein, An Introduction to Transformational Grammar. Univ. Press of America, 1984)

Universal Grammar
The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. "Taken together, the linguistic principles of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of the organization of the initial state of the mind/brain of the language learner--that is, a theory of the human faculty for language." (S. Crain and R. Thornton, Investigations in Universal Grammar. MIT Press, 2000)

If ten varieties of grammar aren't enough for you, rest assured that new grammars are emerging all the time. There's word grammar, for instance. And relational grammar. And that brings to mind arc pair grammar. Not to mention cognitive grammar, lexical functional grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar . . . and many more.
More About Grammar

What Is Grammar?
Why Does Grammar Matter?
Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar

Language Basics

What Is Language?
Six Common Myths About Language
What Is Standard English?

The History of the English Language

Key Dates in the History of the English Language
The Earliest English Dictionaries
Introduction to Etymology

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Richard Nordquist

Richard Nordquist
Grammar & Composition Guide

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Learn English Tenses

Hello and welcome to EnglishTensesWithCartoons.com!

A few years ago, when I was studying English, I thought to myself: "Wouldn't it be great if there was a website focused solely on the English tenses?". The subject of English Tenses is a vast and difficult one, so surely it deserves its own special place on the Internet! This is how this website was born.
I'm writing a book
[ one of the new interactive stories ]

To make the website more interesting, I enriched each of the 12 tenses with some funny animations (cartoons).

So, what is the goal of ETC? In short, to make learning the 12 English tenses as easy as possible!

At this stage, ETC is useful, but it still needs some work. So, your contribution is highly appreciated!

Cheers,
Mark
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Pengertian Sastra Menurut Para Ahli

10 PENGERTIAN SASTRA MENURUT PARA AHLI
1.Sumarno dan Saini, sastra adalah ungkapan pribadi manusia

berupa pengalaman, pemikiran, perasaan, gagasan, semangat, keyakinan, dalam suatu bentuk gambaran kongkret yang membangkitkan pesona dengan alat-alat bahasa.
2.Mursal Esten, menyatakan sastra atau kesusastraan adalah

pengungkapan dari fakta artistik dan imajinatif sebagai manifestasi kehidupan manusia (dan masyarakat) melalui bahasa sebagai medium dan punya efek yang positif terhadap kehidupan manusia (kemanusiaan).

3. Menurut Engleton, sastra yang disebutnya "karya tulisan yang halus" (belle letters) adalah karya yang mencatatkan bentuk bahasa. harian dalam berbagai cara dengan bahasa yang dipadatkan, didalamkan, dibelitkan, dipanjangtipiskan dan diterbalikkan, dijadikan ganjil.

4. Ahmad Badrun, berpendapat bahwa Kesusastraan adalah kegiatan seni yang mempergunakan bahasa dan garis simbol- simbol lain sebagai alai, dan bersifat imajinatif.
5.Menurut Semi, sastra adalah suatu bentuk dan hasil pekerjaan
seni kreatif yang objeknya adalah manusia dan kehidupannya
menggunakan bahasa sebagai mediumnya.
6.Panuti Sudjiman, mendefinisikan sastra sebagai karya lisan atau
tulisan yang memiliki berbagai ciri keunggulan seperti
keorisinalan,
keartistikan,
keindahan
dalam
isi,
dan
ungkapannya.

7. Menurut Sumardjo dan Sumaini, definisi sastra yaitu :
1. Sastra adalah seni bahasa.
2. Sastra adalah ungkapan spontan dari perasaan yang
mendalam.
3. Sastra adalah ekspresi pikiran dalam bahasa.
4. Sastra adalah inspirasi kehidupan yang dimateraikan dalam
sebuah bentuk keindahan.
5. Sastra adalah semua buku yang memuat perasaan
kemanusiaan yang benar dan kebenaran moral dengan
sentuhan kesucian, keluasan pandangan dan bentuk yang
mempesona.
8. Suyitno, Sastra adalah sesuatu yang imajinatif, fiktif dan inventif
juga
harus
melayani
misi-misi
yang
dapat
dipertanggungjawabkan.
9.Tarigan, sastra adalah merupakan obyek bagi pengarang dalam
mengungkapkan gejolak emosinya, misalnya perasaan sedih,
kecewa, senang dan lain sebagainya.
10.Damono,
mengungkapkan
bahwa
sastra
menampilkan
gambaran kehidupan, dan kehidupan itu sendiri adalah suatu

kenyataan sosial. Dalam pengertian ini, kehidupan mencakup hubungan antar masyarakat, antar masyarakat dengan orang- seorang, antarmanusia, dan antarperistiwa yang terjadi dalam batin seseorang
Pengertian Sastra Menurut Para Ahli
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Mahdalena Juwita

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makasih udh berbagi ilmu

04 / 19 / 2011
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agus p replied:

ya sama-sama

05 / 29 / 2011
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is reading Pengertian Sastra Menurut Para Ahli.

03 / 05 / 2011
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ttap optimis

11 / 05 / 2010
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is reading Pengertian Sastra Menurut Para Ahli.

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